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As a result of the
partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795), Ukraine became occupied by two
empires—Russian and Austrian. Galicia, Bukovyna and Carpathian Ukraine were
incorporated into the Austro-Hungarian (Habsburg) Empire and the rest of
Ukraine became part of Russia. These two totalitarian powers had strong central
governments, mighty armies and powerful police ready to suppress any attempts
by Ukrainian population to regain freedom and self determination. Nevertheless
conditions under Austria began to improve, whereas life under Russian
occupation deteriorated. Because of this, the renaissance of Ukrainian culture
and political activities began in western Ukraine.
WESTERN UKRAINE UNDER THE HABSBURG MONARCHY
In 1772, Galicia and, two years later, Bukovina were annexed to the
Austro-Hungarian (Habsburg) Monarchy. In 1774 the Uniate church was renamed to
the Greek Catholic church and equalized in status with Roman Catholic Church.
Educational reforms in 1775 allowed for instructions in Ukrainian language.
However, on balance government policies favored the Poles. Led by church
activities, schools with Ukrainian language began to develop. The new bishop of
Mukachiv, Andriy Bachynskyi (1772-1809), assembled many learned people, who
later together with graduates from Vienna university became professors in Lviv
University (founded in 1784).
The first group defending Ukrainian culture was formed in 1820. A big impetus
to academic activities was provided by fierce polemics during the 1830s between
supporters of the popular spoken language and supporters of the old printed
church language. The proponents of old church language were Mykhaylo Luchkay
and Yosyf Levytskyi; in defense of the spoken popular language were Yosyf
Lozynskyi and a group of young students of Lviv Seminary.
Most
prominent in Ukrainian literature were, so called "Ruthenian Triad":
poet Markian Shashkevych (1811-1843), professor of Ukrainian language Yakiv
Holovatskyi and historian, ethnographer, linguist Ivan Vahylevych. They were
treated with suspicion and animosity by the Austrian authorities. Their first
publication in 1834 "Zorya" (The Star) was banned, Their second publication-a
collection of folk songs and stories, "Rusalka Dnistrova" (Dnister
Mermaid), published in Hungary, was confiscated and not released till 1848,
after death of Markian Shashkevych.
Many changes came in 1848. Revolutions in Europe affected the circumstances
within Austrian Empire. There was a flurry of liberal reforms: the end of
censorship, a promise of a national constitution and the end of serfdom in
Galicia. To counter Polish ambitions for independence, Austrian authorities
began to lift restrictions on the Ukrainian culture. In the autumn of 1848 the
Congress of Ukrainian Scientists was created to promote exclusively Ukrainian
culture and to plan activities such as establishment of a standard grammar for
Ukrainians under Austria and Russia. Stirred by fiery poems of Antin
Mohylnytskyi, they demanded the introduction of Ukrainian language in schools
and universities and separation of the Ukrainian part of Galicia, centered
around Lviv from the Polish part centered around Krakow.
The
year 1848 was a turbulent year for Ukrainians under Austria. In their drive for
self-determination they had to contend not only with Austrian authorities but
also with Poles in Galicia, Rumanians in Bukovyna and Hungarians in Carpathia.
In the end, aspirations for independence of Ukrainians and other nationalities
within Austrian Empire were, for the time being, kept under control. It was the
beginning of quiet reaction to the authoritarian regimes of Austria and Russia.
While in Russia, Ukrainians were accused of siding with Poland, Polish
activists convinced Austrian authorities of Ukrainian sympathy toward Russia.
This resulted in Polish dominance of culture and politics in Galicia. Faced
with such situation many Ukrainians started to think that maybe the only salvation
was with Russia; they were called Moscowphiles or Russophiles. They were ready
to sacrifice Ukrainian national identity for support from Russia against the
Poles, Rumanians and Hungarians and promoted the idea of one Russian nation
from the Carpathian Mountains to Kamchatka. Among them were even former
Ukrainians patriots such as Yakiv Holovatskyi, who was professor of Ukrainian
language in Lviv University.
But
there were also many who remained steadfastly on pure Ukrainian ground, mainly
energetic elements of youth, but also some members of the old generation. They
keenly absorbed fiery poems of Taras Shevchenko and read books of other writers
from eastern Ukraine such as Panteleymon Kulish, Marko Vovchok, Volodymyr
Antonovych, Konysjkyi and Levytskyj-Nechuy. They guarded the survival of
Ukrainian politics, culture and language by means of publications such as
"Vechernytsi" (Evening Times) (1862), "Meta" (Destination)
(1863-1865), "Nyva" (Field) (1865), "Rusalka" (Mermaid)
(1866)and "Pravda" (Truth) (1867).
In Bukovyna, the main Ukrainian writers were Vorobkevych Brothers and Osyp
Fedjkovych. A local Association of Ukrainian Speakers founded in 1869 had at
first a russofile character but in 1880 Ukrainian patriots gained the majority.
To handle educational problems, a Ruthenian Pedagogic Society was created in
1881. In 1910 a Regional School Union came into being comprising of
representatives of Ukrainian cultural, political and financial organizations,
headed by Professor Mykhaylo Hrushevskyi. Between 1907 and 1911 seven private
Ukrainian high schools were established.
Eventually progressive nationals abandoned their
support for government and in 1900 joined with the radicals to form National
Democratic Party. This party included a distinguished historian M. Hrushevskyi
a famous writer Ivan
Franko and a well
known activist, ethnographer and lawyer, Wolodymyr Okhrymowych, who was elected
to the Austrian Senate in 1907.
As result of all this political activity and competition, Ukrainian national
awareness and consciousness spread into wide masses of the population. There were
also big achievements in Ukrainian culture and science. A new crop of journals
appeared such as "Narod" (People), "Gazeta i Slovo" (Life
and Word), "Sloboda" (Freedom). A very popular daily newspaper
"Dilo" (Deed) was born. A notable collaborator and prolific
contributor to these publications was Wolodymyr Okhrymovych. Famous opera
singer, Salomea Krushelnytska, started her world career on the stage of the
Lviv Opera in 1892.
The Shevchenko Association in Lviv was upgraded to a scientific association in
1892 and in 1898 it was reformed to conform with academy of science standards.
Academics demanded permission to establish a separate Ukrainian university in
Lviv as only a limited number of subjects was conducted in Ukrainian in the
existing university. In literature the most prominent writer was Ivan Franko
(1856-1916), but there were also many other talents namely Vasyl Stefanyk and
Olena Koblyansjka. Many high schools were created and an educational journal
"Prosvita" (Enlightenment) was published. To cater for physical
culture there were sporting organizations "Sitch" (named after the
famous Zaporozhyan Cossack stronghold) and "Sokoly" (Falcons). On
economic front cooperatives and credit unions began to function thus reducing
reliability on Austrian and Polish institutions.
At the turn of the century, the ethnic conflict in Galicia deepened. Massive
peasant strikes against the Polish landlords occurred in 1902. Ukrainian
students engaged in demonstrations and clashes with the Poles, and in 1908 a
student assassinated the Galician governor.
EASTERN UKRAINE UNDER
IMPERIAL RUSSIAN RULE
The people in eastern Ukraine and even the outwardly russianized intelligentsia
had not lost their love for Ukrainian ways of life, language and history. They
longed for the former glory of Cossacks and independence. In 1791, during
adverse relationships between Russia and Prussia, a Ukrainian nobleman Vasyl
Kapyst tried to enlist Prussian help in planned uprising against Russian
oppression; he did not succeed.
The situation improved somewhat after death of Tsarina Catherine in 1796. Her
son Pavlo, under sway of his minister and confidant of Ukrainian descent
Oleksander Bezborodjko, began to relax the Russian grip on Ukraine. There was
even talk about return of the former order, as during the hetman's times
(Hetmanate). Publications in the Ukrainian language began to appear. The first
outstanding literary work was "Aeneid" by Ivan Kotlarevskyi
(1769-1838) published in 1798; it was a humorous parody on this famous Roman
epic, transposed to the Cossack scene. Kotlarevskyi also wrote operettas "Natalka
Poltavka" and " Muscovite Sorcerer". Another noteworthy,
contemporary writer in Ukrainian language was novelist Hryhoriy Kvitka.
The cultural activities in Ukraine during 18th century were taking place mainly
in church circles. The literature generally contained scholastic and religious
disputes. The dramatic art was confined to morality plays. A noteworthy
philosopher was Hryhoriy Skorovoda (1722-1794).
After the assassination of Tsar Pavlo in 1801 his successor, Tsar Aleksander I,
began to revert to strict Russian rule. There were some hopes for a renewal of
the Hetmanate, in 1812 and later in 1831, when Cossack regiments were organized
to help with Russian warfare, but it did not eventuate. Russianization of
Ukraine continued.
However, many literary works, although written in Russian, reflected Ukrainian
customs, history and folklore. The most famous writer of such works was Mykolay
Hohol (Nikolai Gogol), author of "Sorochynskyi Fair", "Taras
Bulba" and many more. Among non fiction works of this period was book
about the history of Ukraine up to abolition of Hetmanate, by George Kosinskyi,
published in 1840. Also a book on Ukrainian grammar by Pavlowskyi appeared
about same time. Folk stories, songs and art became very popular subjects in
printed publications, which brought Ukrainian peasants and intelligentsia
closer together.
Clandestine societies called "hromadas" (communities) promoting
Ukrainian culture were being organized. Associated with Kyiv Hromada was
Mykhaylo Drahomanov, who advocated transformation of the Russian Empire into a
federation of independent states. A secret political association called the
Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius (formed in 1826) propagated social
equality and freedom of thought, conscience and speech. They also envisaged a
federation of Slavic states under the leadership of Ukraine.
Schools, universities and theaters began to develop. Books and journals
appeared, notably by professor at Kharkiv University (which opened in 1805)
Petro Hulak-Artemovskyi, ethnographer Amvroziy Metlynskyi and graduate Mykola
Kostomariv, who later became a famous historian. Still, the majority of books,
although dealing with Ukrainian matters, were published in the Russian language
until the appearance in 1840 of "Kobzar", a collection of poems by
famous poet and painter Taras Shevchenko (1814-1861).
Shevchenko, born a serf, was bought out of servitude by a group of artists who
recognized his talent for painting, but became famous mainly through his poems.
In his poems Shevchenko protested against injustices and suppression of freedom
in Ukraine, encouraged preservation of Ukrainian language and reminded
russianized descendants of Cossacks forgotten truth and glory of Ukrainian
past. His poetry reflected a conception of Ukraine as a free and democratic
society that had a profound influence on the development on Ukrainian political
thought. In 1845 Shevchenko worked at Kyiv University together with other
prominent activists for Ukrainian renaissance such as Maksymovych, Kulish and
Kostomariv (author of History of Cossacks).
Conditions deteriorated in 1847; members of Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and
Methodius, and many writers including Taras Shevchenko, were arrested, tried
and exiled and forbidden to write. They were not allowed to return till after
year 1850. Ukrainian reaction to Russian rule was renewed in 1850s, mainly due
to the return from exile by members of Brotherhood of St Cyril and writer
Kulish, who began to publish ethnographical material collected before his
exile. The new star of Ukrainian literature, Marko Vowchok published the
journals "Khata" (Home) and "Osnova" (Groundwork),
(1860-1862). A group called Osnova promoted the liberation of the peasants from
serfdom and education, organized Sunday schools and published Ukrainian
textbooks. They defended Ukrainian history and language from Russian and Polish
influences. This movement even gained support within some Russian circles.
In 1862, the St Petersburgh education committee recommended the introduction of
Ukrainian language into state schools. Russian writers became interested in
Ukrainian literature, especially in poems by Taras Shewchenko. However all this
came to a halt during a Polish uprising in 1863 when the Russian government
accused Ukrainians of supporting the Poles in their effort to gain independence
from Russia.
At the start of the 1870s the centre of the Ukrainian movement was in Kyiv,
where censorship was relaxed and which made literary and scientific activity
possible. Promoting Ukrainian sciences were Historian Antonovych and
Drahomanov, ethnographers Chubynsjkyi and Rudchenko, linguists Zhytetskyi and
Mykhaljchuk. In 1672 they founded a branch of Geographical Society in Kyiv,
which became the centre of Ukrainian culture. Talented writers such as Rudansjkyi,
Nechuy-Levytskyi, Myrnyi, Konysjkyi and Starytskyi represented Ukrainian
literature. Mykola Lysenko provided foundations for Ukrainian Music by his
collection of songs and compositions and by staging of many beautiful concerts.
Although all these activities were of cultural and scientific nature only,
avoiding political, or even social affairs, they did not escape the attention
of Ukrainian enemies. Government officials Regelman and Yusefovich kept
complaining to Russian authorities that promotion of Ukrainian language and
literature was a Polish and Austrian intrigue intended to separate Ukraine from
Russia. Consequently, a commission in 1875 instituted censorship of Ukrainian
literature and banned books from western Ukraine, except those published by Russophiles,
which supported Moscow. The Kyiv branch of the Geographical Society was closed
down and in 1876 came the ban on publication of books in Ukrainian language.
Thus cultural activities moved again west and centered on the Taras Shevchenko
Association, founded in 1873 in Lviv with help by Ukrainians from the east.
In Kyiv, to circumvent ban on Ukrainian language, a scientific and historical
journal, "Kievskaya Starina" (Ancient Kyiv), came out in 1882. It was
written in the Russian language but by Ukrainian authors and in the 1890s
included some articles in Ukrainian. The literature in Ukrainian language was
at first restricted to cheap popular novels but later more serious themes were
introduced by prominent authors such as Kotsubynsjkyi, Hrinchenko, Samiylenko
and Lesya Ukrainka (1871-1913). There was a strong development of Ukrainian
theater generated by plays based on folklore, notably by Kropyvnytskyi and
Karpenko-Karyi (Ivan Tobylevych) and performances by many talented actors.
Political activity accelerated toward the end of the century. Younger,
primarily student led hromadas became involved in politiical activities. One
such group in Kharkiv developed into the Revolutionary Ukrainian Party, which
in a pamphlet published in 1900 advanced a political goal of "one, single,
indivisible, free, independent Ukraine"
The ban by Russian authorities on Ukrainian language being used during meetings
and seminars intensified the struggle and political activity in defense of the
Ukrainian culture. In December of 1904 a special commission of ministers
concluded that the Ukrainian national movement does not constitute a serious
danger to Russia. In 1905 the cancellation of the ban on Ukrainian language
created great expectations for progress in cultural and political life. However
attempts in 1906 to advance the Ukrainian cause by some deputies in Russian
parliament (Duma) did not achieve any significant results. The anti-Ukrainian
attitude of the authorities hindered, but did not stop progress of Ukrainian culture,
education and economy.
The newspapers "Khliborob" (Bread Producer), "Hromadsjka
Dumka"
(Community Thought), "Ridnyi Kray" (Native Country), "Selo"
(Village)
and journals "Viljna Ukraina" (Free Ukraine) and "Nova
Hromada" (New
Community) were being widely read. The creation of the Ukrainian Scientific
Association in 1907 assembled scientific forces of different disciplines.
The Ukrainian movement looked forward with confidence toward the future.
THE COSSACKS
The Cossack stronghold, Zaporozhian Sitch, was subservient to Moscow and was
utilized for raids on Crimea and Turkey. During the Turkish war, which started
in 1768, several thousand Cossacks supported the Russians in battles on land
and Sea. Eulogies from the Tsarina but little else and restrictions of Cossack
freedoms continued rewarded their efforts. Their lands were being colonized by
Russians, Serbians and other foreigners with an aim of creation of the
so-called Novorossiya or New Russia state in the south of Ukraine.
After end of Turkish war in 1775, the Cossacks were
being gradually disarmed and in the Summer of that year, Russian general Tekeli
surrounded the Cossacks in the Sitch itself, with superior forces, and demanded
the abandonment of their fortress. Faced with such overwhelming odds, Cossack
chief Kalnyshevskyj surrendered. The Sitch was destroyed and abolished by
Tzarist edict on the 3rd of August 1775. Kalnyshevskyj and the other Cossack
leaders were exiled to Siberia.
The Cossack lands were granted to Russian nobles. The
Cossacks were told to disperse and settle in towns and villages or to join the
Russian forces. Many Cossacks escaped and settled in Turkey near the Danube
delta. In 1778 they were formally accepted under Turkish rule. By end of 1780
all districts, which were formerly under the Hetmanate, were incorporated into
the Russian regime. In 1783 all Cossack regiments were transferred to the
Russian forces, peasants were prohibited to leave their landlords, which made
them serfs on their former land. Ukrainian church autonomy was abolished and
the church property was transferred to Russian treasury.
When the Cossacks in Turkey, under pressure from
Russian field marshal Potemkin, were told to resettle further inland beyond the Danube river, many of
them returned home. Potemkin, in order to encourage this process to continue
and to discourage future exits of Cossacks from Ukraine, decided in 1783 to
organize the Cossacks under name of Black Sea Force. These Cossacks, after
another Turkish war in 1792, were resettled to Kubanj and were allowed to
reestablish their former system and customs. Other Cossacks settled in lands
under Austrian rule.
The Cossacks, who remained in Turkey, were under constant
pressure from Russia to return. At the start of another Turkish war in 1828
Cossack chief Osyp Hladkyj decided to go over to the Russian side and many
Cossacks followed him. After the war they at first settled near Mariupol on
coast of Azov Sea and in the 1860s resettled in Kubanj. Cossacks, who remained
in Turkey were dispersed, as reprisal for betrayal by Osyp Hladkyj.
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